Aging relates to the loss of muscle mass as a result of reduced muscle fibres and atrophy of fibres which remain. This is paired with an increase in non-contractile tissues such as collagen and adipose tissue (Aagaard et al., 2010). This loss of strength and mass of the muscle is known as sarcopenia, an issue which leads to a decline in functionality, mobility and endurance in the elderly population (Fabre et al., 2007). Two important factors of strength are that of skeletal muscle mass and fibre type-composition. The decrease and changes of these elements leads to progressive loss of strength related to age (Korhnonen et al., 2006). Frontera et al. (2000) and Janssen et al. (2000) conducted studies demonstrating that skeletal muscle mass decreases at approximately the 4th decade of life, progressing at a rate of 0.5%-1% a year. The limited ability to generate force is a contributing factor of difficulty performing actives of daily living (ADLs), thus potentially reducing the quality of life for an ageing individual (Johnston et al., 2008). Reduced muscle mass can also lead to the development of other risks including diabetes as glucose is primarily disposed of within muscle tissue (Sayer et al., 2007).

Moderate to high intensity of 8-10 exercises with 10-15 repetitions twice a week is a general recommendation for resistance training involving major muscle groups (Nelson et al., 2007). Variations in resistances such as 30%-70% of their one repetition maximum (1RM) have the potential to increase muscle power and maximal velocity (Cronin et al., 2001). For older adults, the implementation of low, moderate and high resistances has been found to increase force production rates and muscular power (Henwood et al., 2005). Therefore, the progressive loss of Type II muscle fibres with age, relating to a reduction in movement velocity could be moderated by the use of optimised training loads in weight-training (Evans, 2000). Training can also be implemented into an aquatic setting, allowing for reduced strain on the joints but still providing resistance to load the muscles. Therefore muscular tension and energy expenditure can be enhanced, particularly if similar movements are not plausible on land for some individuals (Campbell et al., 2003). Misko et al. (2003) study suggested that varied high-velocity, power orientated resistance training was more effective in increasing the functional ability of older adults in comparison to strength training alone.

Resistance training has been found to, on a short-term basis, increase strength in both young and elderly populations (Erskine et al., 2008 and Suetta et al., 2004).  Differing studies alter on their findings as to the cause in this increase in strength. Hakkinen et al. (2000) suggested that a decrease in the co-activation of antagonist muscles may lead to the increase in torque values following strength training. Narici et al. (1996) suggested it was due to an increase in neural activation, supporting the previous findings of Young et al. (1983) although the age of this research may now limit its application. Trappe et al., (2002) conducted a study focusing on the how effective a resistance training maintenance program one day a week would be in preserving muscle strength and size in older men.  During the 12 week programme, one group trained 3 days per week at 80% of their 1RM. The maintenance group performed 3 sets of 10 repetitions at 80% of their 1RM for one day a week with the final group returning to a normal lifestyle of no physical activity. Their results concluded that training just one day a week was sufficient in helping to maintain muscular strength and size in older men. Participants who resumed no regular exercise shown a significant loss in muscle strength and size suggesting that regular resistance training can be beneficial in resisting sarcopenia and maintain ease of ADLs. Similar to Trappe et al. (2002), Arai et al. (2007) found that low‑frequency resistance exercise such as two days a week for 12 weeks for older adults had positive effects on physical function. Kimura et al. (2010) found after 12 weeks of resistance exercise training in older adults, physiological function improved, thus improving muscular strength and quality of life. Henwood et al. (2008) found that prolonged cessation from training resulted in a loss in muscle function in those who had previously participated in strength or muscle power training. Similar result were also found in Lovell et al., (2010) study. These effects could be reversed with retraining leading them to surmise that high-intensity resistance exercise comprising of either strength or power-based training can be beneficial to an older adult. In addition, Andersen et al., (2015) found that long-term resistance training in elderly men had an impact on muscle protein enzymes and increased lean body mass. Thus, it could be inferred, that resistance training for the older population can have a low frequency rate over a short-term basis and still present with beneficial effects to the musculature of the individual. It has the potential to control the development of sarcopenia, in turn reducing the increased rate of physical disability often found in the ageing population (Liu-Ambrose and Donaldson, 2009). However, cessation of this training for a period of time can reverse the effects suggesting maintenance of training, even at a low frequency will be beneficial to the older population.

 

 

 

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