Discussions

Should Young People Be Resistance Training?

 

Introduction

Since 2000, resistance training for the youth has become widely accepted, by medical, fitness and sports organisations. With a steady increase in training load in the physical education curriculum, including muscular strength training and performance training, especially in youth athletes, resistance training became one of the top 10 fitness trends of 2010 (Faigenbaum and Myer, 2010). Faigenbaum and Myer, (2010)’s research found the appropriately supervised resistance training gave benefits to the youth, including weight control, stronger bones and greater resistance to injury

Faigenbaum and Myer, (2010) propose the ‘potential benefits of paediatric resistance training’ as:

  • “Increase muscle strength
  • Increase muscle power
  • Increase local muscle endurance
  • Enhance motor skill performance
  • Increase bone mineral density
  • Improve body composition
  • improve insulin sensitivity
  • Improve blood Iipid profile
  • Reduce risk of sport-related injuries
  • Enhance sports performance
  • Stimulate a more positive attitude toward lifetime physical activity”

 

Body Composition

Obesity

With an increase in childhood obesity (37.8% of 11-15-year-old boys in 2013 and 36.7% 11-15-year-old girls in both 2004 and 2012 (NHS, 2015)) it has been reported that following a resistance training programme has positive effects for body composition of young people that are obese or at risk of obesity. Participation in a resistance training programme is be less taxing aerobically, and will help to improve the confidence of the participants in their own physical capabilities.

Combatting Childhood Obesity

Bogdanis, (2012)’s research into fatigue writes about the muscle fibre types and energy metabolism systems. The research suggests that the type IIX fibres use anaerobic metabolism, thus meaning that increased muscle mass leads to increased metabolic rate. Bean, (2015:10) writes that each 0.45kg of muscle mass burns 6 kcal/day (compared to fat at 2-4 kcal/day) at rest and that an increase in muscle mass will increase one’s resting metabolic rate and total daily calorie expenditure.

Bone Health

One common perception of adolescent resistance training is the effect on growth it may have on an ‘immature’ skeleton.

Calcium is a fundamental part of bone health, responsible for formation and maintenance of the structure and rigidity of the skeleton (Bueno and Czepielewski, 2008). It is recommended that for a child aged between 9 and 18, 1300mg/day is the necessary daily intake to maintain strong and healthy bones (Institute of Medicine and Food and Nutrition Board, 2002). In addition to calcium, enough vitamin D, a hormone that regulates calcium and phosphorous metabolism, must be present.

Another common concern to youth lifting is that of the epiphysis or growth plate. The epiphysis can be three to five times weaker than surrounding connective tissue and can be damaged through shear or resisting forces. Any damage to the epiphysis can lead to growth disturbance, hence the worry about the youth resistance training.

A review of research between 1980 and 2008 on resistance training in young people has showed that it is effective in a well-supervised programme. Any injuries sustained by the participants over all of the studies reviewed came primarily through misuse of equipment, in appropriate weight, improper technique. It was in fact free weight training that would be considered the most likely to cause injury as a result of poor balance or coordination, however free weights offer smaller increments in weight, resulting in less opportunity for injury as a result of overload. With proper supervision any injuries should again be avoidable (Dahab and McCambridge, 2009).

Considerations

It is possible to measure the growth of young people through kinathropometry. Taking into account peak height velocity (PHV) it is possible to determine the maturity of an individual and once it is possible to determine the initiation of a growth spurt and the peak of the spurt, training methods and loads can be changed to determine how the individual should train (Balyi and Way, 2009).

Basic kinathropometry involves taking three measurements of standing height, sitting height, and arm length. These measurements are taken at regular intervals (every three months) throughout childhood and adolescence and charted on graphs to draw “growth velocity” curves over time.  The measurements can then be compared with other adolescents in order to assess if a young athlete is average for his or her age (Early, average or late maturer) (Balyi and Way, 2009).

Training

Taking into account the five S’s of training and performance we can determine how an adolescent should be training. The trainability of speed, skill and suppleness (flexibility) is based on chronological age; however, training strength and stamina should be based on developmental age (maturity of the individual).

Aerobic emphasis should begin at the onset of PHV (Peak Height Velocity) (the start of the growth spurt) with sport specific requirements determining the significance of the change in training. Maximal strength training however, should begin after PHV (Ross & Marfell-Jones, 1991; Beunen & Homis, 2000; Balyi & Ross, 2009; Balyi & Ross, 2009)

Figure 1 shows the timing of training in children adolescents. Exact timing will vary based on maturity of the individual, as found out by testing PHV. “The boxes with solid lines represent sensitive periods that are chronological age based. Boxes with dashed lines represent sensitive periods that are on a “moving scale”, that is, they are related to the onset of PHV, PHV and as growth decelerates” (Balyi and Way, 2009)

Figure1. Windows of Accelerated Adaptation to Training (Balyi and Way, 2005)

s&c picture

Conclusion

Both stamina and strength should be trained at all stages, but the emphasis will be defined by the objectives of the different stages and the individual tempo of growth. From the onset of the growth spurt to PHV, the rapid growth of the individual will lead to a change in the centre of gravity, leg length and arm span. These contributing factors will play a role in technique, speed and coordination. Understanding these measurements will help the coach understand the process better.

After PHV, for males, strength training should be a priority 12–18 months (Ross & Marfell-Jones, 1991; Beunen & Thomis, 2000; Anderson & Bernhardt, 1998). For female athletes strength training should start immediately after PHV. This strength training is for central nervous system and motor improvements before full hormonal maturation. No Hypertrophy is expected. As a result of the reduced stress on the soft tissues and bones, it is possible to slowly increase training loads and volume. (Balyi and Way, 2009)

To conclude, resistance training for young people can be extremely harmful, but with the right understanding of the individual’s maturity and coaching knowledge it is possible to train without any issues.

Guidelines (Faigenbaum et al. 1996, Webb, 1990)

  • 6-8 sets should be completed for each of the major muscle groups
  • 1-2 sets per exercise
  • 10-15 reps
  • If failure to complete 10 reps, weight is too heavy
  • 1-3 minutes rest between sets
  • 2 training sessions a week
  • ensure proper supervision at all times

 

 

References

Balyi, I. & Ross, G. (2009). Key coaching concerning growth and maturation of the young developing performer. In I. Balyi and C. Williams (Eds.) Coaching the young developing performer (pp. 39-45). Leeds: Coachwise.

Balyi, I. & Way, R. (2009) The Role of Monitoring Growth in Long-Term Athlete Development. [Online] Available from: https://www.waterpolo.ca/admin/docs/LTAD/The%20Role%20of%20Monitoring%20Growth%20in%20Long-Term%20Athlete%20Development%20October%2014%202009.pdf [accessed 21 March 2016]

Balyi, I., Way, R., Norris, S., Cardinal, C. & Higgs, C. (2005). Long‐term athlete development resource paper, Canadian sport for life, Vancouver, BC: Canadian Sport Centres.

Balyi, I. & Williams, C. (2009). Coaching the young developing performer. Leeds: Coachwise.

Bean, A. (2015) The Complete Guide to Strength Training. (5th ed.) London: Bloomsbury.

Beunen, G. & Thomis, M. (2000). Muscle strength development in childhood and adolescence. Pediatric Exercise Science, Vol. 12, 174-197.

Bogdanis, G. (2012) Effects of Physical Activity and Inactivity on Muscle Fatigue.Frontiers in Physiology. Vol. 3: 142.

Bueno, A. and Czepielewski, M. (2008) The importance for growth of dietary intake of calcium and vitamin D. Jornal de Pediatria. Vol. 84, No. 5: 386-394.

Dahab, K. and McCambridge, T. (2009) Strength Training in Children and Adolescents. Sports Health. Vol. 1, No. 3: 223-226.

Faigenbaum, A. and Myer, G. (2010) Pédiatrie Resistanee Training: Benefits, Coneerns, and Program Design Considerations . American College of Sports Medicine. Vol. 9, No. 3: 161-168.

Faigenbaum AD, Kraemer WJ, (1996). Youth resistance training: Position statement paper and literature review. Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research.Vol. 18 No. 62

Institute of Medicine, and Food and Nutrition Board, (2002) Dietary Reference Intakes for Calcium, Phosphorus, Magnesium, Vitamin D, and Fluoride. Washington: National Academy Press.

NHS. (2015) Child obesity rates are ‘stabilising’. [Online] Available from: http://www.nhs.uk/news/2015/01January/Pages/Child-obesity-rates-are-stabilising.aspx [accessed 9 March 2016]

Ross, W. D., Marfell-Jones, M. J. (1991). Kinanthropometry. In J. D. MacDougall, H. A. Wenger & H. J. Green (Eds.), Physiological testing of the High Performance Athlete (2nd ed.) (pp. 223-308). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics

Webb DR.(1990) Strength training in children and adolescents. Pediatric Clinics of North America Vol. 37 No.1187